Epidemiology and management of spinal cord injury in children and adolescents
Keywords:
spinal cord injury; pediatric; epidemiology; management
Abstract
Pediatric spinal cord injury (SCI) is a rare condition with significant long-term consequences affecting both children’s and their caregivers’ lives. Leading causes of pediatric SCI are motor vehicle accidents, falls and sport accidents. Patient assessment and management should be based in pediatric physiology and be adjusted to age. The maturity process brings up many unique challenges and complications such as scoliosis and hip dysplasia that have been reported to be common problems after sustaining a SCI in young age. Decreased mobility, autonomic dysreflexia, neurogenic bladder and neurogenic bowel have also all to be managed throughout the child’s growing and maturity process. Rehabilitation and management of pediatric SCI patients aims in facilitating independence to meet peer lifestyle and successful transfer into adulthood. The present study is a literature review aiming to summarize the current knowledge on the rehabilitation and management of the secondary complications of pediatric onset SCI. A literature research was performed using the PubMed and Google Scholar online data bases and the following key words: “spinal cord injury,” “pediatric”, “children”, “epidemiology”, “management” and “rehabilitation”. Following the PRISMA guidelines, 27 articles were finally included in this review. Caring for children or adolescents with SCI presents many unique secondary health complications and should be based on normal life milestones.
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References
1. Powell A and Davidson L. Pediatric spinal cord injury: a review by organ system. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 2015; 26.1: 109-132; doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2014.09.002 .
2. Geuther M, Grassner L, Mach O, et al. Functional outcome after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury is superior in adolescents compared to adults. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 2019; 23.2:248-253; doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.12.001.
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4. Mulcahey MJ, Vogel LC, Sheikh M, et al. Recommendations for the National Institute for Neurologic Disorders and Stroke spinal cord injury common data elements for children and youth with SCI. Spinal Cord 2017; 55.4:331-340; doi:10.1038/sc.2016.139 Epub 2016 Nov 15.
5. Gorski K, Harbold Κ, Haversticket Κ, et al. Locomotor training in the pediatric spinal cord injury population: A systematic review of the literature.Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2016;22.2: 135-148; doi: 10.1310/sci2202-135 .
6. Benmelouka A, Shamseldin L. S , Nourelden A. Z , et al. A review on the etiology and management of pediatric traumatic spinal cord injuries. Advanced Journal of Emergency medicine 2020; 4(2):e28; doi: 10.22114/ajem.v0i0.256 Epub 2019 Oct 10.
7. Lemley K and Bauer P. Pediatric spinal cord injury: Recognition of injury and initial resuscitation, in hospital management, and coordination of care. Journal of Pediatric Intensive Care 2015; 4.01: 027-034; doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554986.
8. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 6(7): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed100009
9. Selvarajah S, Schneider EB, Becker D, et al. The epidemiology of childhood and adolescent traumatic spinal cord injury in the United States: 2007-2010. Journal of Neurotrauma 2014;15;31(18):1548-60. doi: 10.1089/neu.2014.3332. Epub 2014 Aug 12.
10. Schottler J, Vogel LC, Sturm P. Spinal cord injuries in young children: a review of children injured at 5 years of age and younger. Developmental Medicine Child Neurology. 2012; 54(12):1138-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04411.x. Epub 2012 Sep 23.
11. Parent St, Mac-Thiong JM, Roy-Beaudry M, et al. Spinal cord injury in the pediatric population: a systematic review of the literature.” Journal of Neurotrauma 2011; 28.8: 1515-1524; doi: 10.1089/neu.2009.1153
12. Canosa-Hermida E, Mora-Boga R, Cabrera- Sarmiento J.J, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic spinal cord injury in childhood and adolescence in Galicia, Spain: report of the last 26-years. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 2019; 42.4: 423-429; doi:10.1080/10790268.2017.1389836 .
13. Chien Li-C, Wu Jau-Ch, Chen Yu-Ch, et al. Age, sex, and socio-economic status affect the incidence of pediatric spinal cord injury: an eleven-year national cohort study. PLoS One 2012; 7.6: e39264; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039264 Epub 2012 Jun 22
14. Smith E, Finn S, and Fitzpatrick P. Epidemiology of pediatric traumatic and acquired non traumatic spinal cord injury in Ireland. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2017; 23.3: 279-284; doi: 10.1310/sci16-00029 Epub 2017 May 4.
15. Galvin J, Scheinberg A, and New W. P. A retrospective case series of pediatric spinal cord injury and disease in Victoria, Australia. Spine 2013; 38.14: E878-E882;doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e318294e839 .
16. Brauge D, Plas B, Vinchon M, et al. Multicenter study of 37 pediatric patients with SCIWORA or other spinal cord injury without associated bone lesion. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery & Research 2020; 106.1 167-171; doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2019.10.006 .
17. Nadarajah V, Jauregui J. J, Perfetti D, Shasti M, Koh Y. E, et al. What are the trends and demographics in sportsrelated pediatric spinal cord injuries?. The Physician and Sports Medicine 2018; 46:1,8-13; doi:10.1080/00913847.2018.1408384 Epub 2017 Nov 22.
18. Pérez-de la Cruz S, Cimolin V, and Gil-Agudo A. Spinal cord injury in pediatric age in Spain. Reality of a national reference center. Child’s Nervous System 2015; 31.6: 917-921.
19. Knox J. Epidemiology of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children: a nationwide perspective. Journal of Children’s Orthopaedics 2016; vol. 10,3: 255-60; doi:10.1007/s11832-016-0740-x Epub 2016 May 21.
20. Cage M. J, Knox B. J, Wimberlyet L. R, et al. Complications associated with high-dose corticosteroid administration in children with spinal cord injury. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 2015; vol.35.7:687-692.
21. Parent St, Dimaret J, Dekutoski M, et al. Unique features of pediatric spinal cord injury. Spine 2010; vol35.21S: S202-S208.
22. Arora B and Suresh S. Spinal cord injuries in older children: is there a role for high-dose methylprednisolone? Pediatric Emergency Care 2011; 27(12):1192-4. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0b013e31823b4d06 .
23. Donenberg J. Gl, Fetters L and Johnson R. The effects of locomotor training in children with spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2019; 22.4: 272-287; doi: 10.1080/17518423.2018.1487474 Epub 2018 Jun 19.
24. Calhoun C, Schottler J and Vogel C. L. Recommendations for mobility in children with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2013; 19.2:142-151; doi: 10.1310/sci1902-142.
25. Kulshrestha R, Kuiper J.H, Masri W. E., et al. Scoliosis in paediatric onset spinal cord injuries. Spinal Cord 2020;1-5; doi.org/10.1038/s41393-020-0418-6 Epub 2020 Jan 20.
26. Mulcahey M. J, Gaughan P. J, Betz R. R, et al. Neuromuscular scoliosis in children with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2013 19.2:96-103; doi: 10.1310/sci1902-96 .
27. Argetsinger L.C., Trimble S.A., Roberts M.T., et al. Sensitivity to change and responsiveness of the Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control (SATCo) in children with spinal cord injury. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2018; 22.4:260-271; doi: 10.1080/17518423.2018.1475429 Epub 2018 May 22.
28. Eswara R. J, Castellan M, González R, et al. The urological management of children with spinal cord injury.World Journal of Urology 2018; 36.10: 1593-1601; doi.org/10.1007/s00345-018-2433-1 Epub 2018 Aug 13.
29. Önal B, Kırlı E. A, Selçuk B, et al. Risk factors predicting upper urinary tract deterioration in children with spinal cord injury. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2020;1-8; doi: 10.1002/nau.24580 Epub 2020 Nov 4.
2. Geuther M, Grassner L, Mach O, et al. Functional outcome after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury is superior in adolescents compared to adults. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 2019; 23.2:248-253; doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.12.001.
3. Osorio M, Reyes R. M and Massagli L. T. Pediatric spinal cord injury. Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports 2014; 2.3:158-168; doi:10.1007/s40141-014-0054-1 Epub 2014 Jun 20
4. Mulcahey MJ, Vogel LC, Sheikh M, et al. Recommendations for the National Institute for Neurologic Disorders and Stroke spinal cord injury common data elements for children and youth with SCI. Spinal Cord 2017; 55.4:331-340; doi:10.1038/sc.2016.139 Epub 2016 Nov 15.
5. Gorski K, Harbold Κ, Haversticket Κ, et al. Locomotor training in the pediatric spinal cord injury population: A systematic review of the literature.Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2016;22.2: 135-148; doi: 10.1310/sci2202-135 .
6. Benmelouka A, Shamseldin L. S , Nourelden A. Z , et al. A review on the etiology and management of pediatric traumatic spinal cord injuries. Advanced Journal of Emergency medicine 2020; 4(2):e28; doi: 10.22114/ajem.v0i0.256 Epub 2019 Oct 10.
7. Lemley K and Bauer P. Pediatric spinal cord injury: Recognition of injury and initial resuscitation, in hospital management, and coordination of care. Journal of Pediatric Intensive Care 2015; 4.01: 027-034; doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554986.
8. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 6(7): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed100009
9. Selvarajah S, Schneider EB, Becker D, et al. The epidemiology of childhood and adolescent traumatic spinal cord injury in the United States: 2007-2010. Journal of Neurotrauma 2014;15;31(18):1548-60. doi: 10.1089/neu.2014.3332. Epub 2014 Aug 12.
10. Schottler J, Vogel LC, Sturm P. Spinal cord injuries in young children: a review of children injured at 5 years of age and younger. Developmental Medicine Child Neurology. 2012; 54(12):1138-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04411.x. Epub 2012 Sep 23.
11. Parent St, Mac-Thiong JM, Roy-Beaudry M, et al. Spinal cord injury in the pediatric population: a systematic review of the literature.” Journal of Neurotrauma 2011; 28.8: 1515-1524; doi: 10.1089/neu.2009.1153
12. Canosa-Hermida E, Mora-Boga R, Cabrera- Sarmiento J.J, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic spinal cord injury in childhood and adolescence in Galicia, Spain: report of the last 26-years. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 2019; 42.4: 423-429; doi:10.1080/10790268.2017.1389836 .
13. Chien Li-C, Wu Jau-Ch, Chen Yu-Ch, et al. Age, sex, and socio-economic status affect the incidence of pediatric spinal cord injury: an eleven-year national cohort study. PLoS One 2012; 7.6: e39264; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039264 Epub 2012 Jun 22
14. Smith E, Finn S, and Fitzpatrick P. Epidemiology of pediatric traumatic and acquired non traumatic spinal cord injury in Ireland. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2017; 23.3: 279-284; doi: 10.1310/sci16-00029 Epub 2017 May 4.
15. Galvin J, Scheinberg A, and New W. P. A retrospective case series of pediatric spinal cord injury and disease in Victoria, Australia. Spine 2013; 38.14: E878-E882;doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e318294e839 .
16. Brauge D, Plas B, Vinchon M, et al. Multicenter study of 37 pediatric patients with SCIWORA or other spinal cord injury without associated bone lesion. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery & Research 2020; 106.1 167-171; doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2019.10.006 .
17. Nadarajah V, Jauregui J. J, Perfetti D, Shasti M, Koh Y. E, et al. What are the trends and demographics in sportsrelated pediatric spinal cord injuries?. The Physician and Sports Medicine 2018; 46:1,8-13; doi:10.1080/00913847.2018.1408384 Epub 2017 Nov 22.
18. Pérez-de la Cruz S, Cimolin V, and Gil-Agudo A. Spinal cord injury in pediatric age in Spain. Reality of a national reference center. Child’s Nervous System 2015; 31.6: 917-921.
19. Knox J. Epidemiology of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children: a nationwide perspective. Journal of Children’s Orthopaedics 2016; vol. 10,3: 255-60; doi:10.1007/s11832-016-0740-x Epub 2016 May 21.
20. Cage M. J, Knox B. J, Wimberlyet L. R, et al. Complications associated with high-dose corticosteroid administration in children with spinal cord injury. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 2015; vol.35.7:687-692.
21. Parent St, Dimaret J, Dekutoski M, et al. Unique features of pediatric spinal cord injury. Spine 2010; vol35.21S: S202-S208.
22. Arora B and Suresh S. Spinal cord injuries in older children: is there a role for high-dose methylprednisolone? Pediatric Emergency Care 2011; 27(12):1192-4. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0b013e31823b4d06 .
23. Donenberg J. Gl, Fetters L and Johnson R. The effects of locomotor training in children with spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2019; 22.4: 272-287; doi: 10.1080/17518423.2018.1487474 Epub 2018 Jun 19.
24. Calhoun C, Schottler J and Vogel C. L. Recommendations for mobility in children with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2013; 19.2:142-151; doi: 10.1310/sci1902-142.
25. Kulshrestha R, Kuiper J.H, Masri W. E., et al. Scoliosis in paediatric onset spinal cord injuries. Spinal Cord 2020;1-5; doi.org/10.1038/s41393-020-0418-6 Epub 2020 Jan 20.
26. Mulcahey M. J, Gaughan P. J, Betz R. R, et al. Neuromuscular scoliosis in children with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 2013 19.2:96-103; doi: 10.1310/sci1902-96 .
27. Argetsinger L.C., Trimble S.A., Roberts M.T., et al. Sensitivity to change and responsiveness of the Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control (SATCo) in children with spinal cord injury. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2018; 22.4:260-271; doi: 10.1080/17518423.2018.1475429 Epub 2018 May 22.
28. Eswara R. J, Castellan M, González R, et al. The urological management of children with spinal cord injury.World Journal of Urology 2018; 36.10: 1593-1601; doi.org/10.1007/s00345-018-2433-1 Epub 2018 Aug 13.
29. Önal B, Kırlı E. A, Selçuk B, et al. Risk factors predicting upper urinary tract deterioration in children with spinal cord injury. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2020;1-8; doi: 10.1002/nau.24580 Epub 2020 Nov 4.
Published
2022-09-28
Section
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